30 Womens Activities: Yugoslav Relief, The Christian Science Monitor, April 17, 1943, SWP1, box 3, folder 2, n.p. Whether you are a private individual or a company, if you are a tax payer in France, you get tax benefits on donations to the Fondation Napolon. In 1921 the voters of North Dakota removed from office the governor, attorney general, and commissioner of agriculture. [4], Plebiscita (sing. The return of war made it also possible for him to re-gild the statue of himself as the man sent by providence. After the post-war Treaty of Ancn in 1883, the so-called Question of the Pacific arose over Tacna-Arica with both Chile and Peru laying claim to it and unwilling to agree upon terms for a plebiscite. If it passes, it becomes law. Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain, Universidad de Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain, https://doi.org/10.1017/S175577392100031X, Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. Like the initiative and referendum, recall originated in Switzerland, where it was made applicable to the entire legislature as well as to individual officials. ), Constitutionalism and Dictatorship: Pinochet, the Junta, and the 1980 Constitution, The foundations of limited authoritarian government: institutions, commitment, and power-sharing in dictatorships, Ugandas referendum 2000: the silent Boycott, Will vs. Reason: the populist and technocratic forms of political representation and their critique to party government, Dependency and Development in Latin America, The Emperors Dilemma: a computational model of self-enforcing norms. 1. This idea of a permeable crossing line to ensure stability, equality, and economic comfort was also indirectly addressed by Wambaugh in terms of emancipation and womens rights. Nevertheless, the failed Tacna-Arica referendum served as a matrix for her exegeses about plebiscites, because it constitutes a most valuable source for the study of the requisites for a successful plebiscite (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 331), particularly in contrastive analysis to her most ideal example, the Carinthian case of 1920. Whether you are a private individual or a company, if you are a tax payer in France, you get tax benefits on donations to the Fondation Napolon. She further admitted that she could only rely on the various statements and documents of the American and Chilean delegations (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, x) for her book chapter on Tacna-Arica. The East Prussian plebiscite [1] [2] ( German: Abstimmung in Ostpreuen ), also known as the Allenstein and Marienwerder plebiscite [3] [4] [5] or Warmia, Masuria and Powile plebiscite [6] ( Polish: Plebiscyt na Warmii, Mazurach i Powilu ), was a plebiscite for the self-determination of the regions of southern Warmia (Ermland), Masuria (Mazury. Wambaughs task within the LoN rather than outside of it provided her with the unique opportunity to influence and modify conventional norms and customary standards about voting processes and female citizens. There were several key issues to be . Some scholars have found reason in believing that the Concilium Plebis became the Comitia Tributa in 339 or 287 BC. The threat of conscription towards Peruvian men, eligible to cast a vote in the referendum, was another, more indirect, way to drive them out of the territory and across the borders to Peru.Footnote We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. The plebiscite in the Saar Basin differed from all others specified by the Treaty of Versailles in that the franchise for this referendum was not automatically determined by birthplace or duration of residency (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1940, 165n2). Plebiscite Territories of Germany under the League of Nations A. Wambaugh detailed further that the so-called Meldekarten (police records of citizens, settling in a particular commune or county) were subsuming entire families (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1940, 235n97). You could almost say the Revolutionaires liked them so much they wrote four (1791, 1793, 1795, 1799)! G. W. Botsford distinguishes these two types of assemblies in terms of their function. Gauge the moods of the European people and statesmen as Woodrow Wilson arrived to forge an end to World War I This dualist set-up allowed Lemisch and his likeminded acolytes to relegate the Saint Germain argumentation about minority rights conveniently as invalid and superfluous. In her unpublished manuscript, Frontiers by Plebiscite, for example, she referred to Europe as a continent haunted by centuries of conquest, of colonisation, and of royal marriages, together with the traditional policies of religious and racial persecutions [] a minute patchwork of dark glowing colors.Footnote For instance, self-determination was neither included in Wilsons Fourteen Points, as Wambaugh frankly admitted (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 11), nor was it originally connected to questions of human rights or the political protection of minorities, except for cultural and linguistic entitlements. RY and PH), Castlereagh: Life & Legacy We provide empirical evidence from dictatorships for the period 19462008 that is compatible with our expectations. As president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (19001904; 19151920) and the International Woman Suffrage Alliance (19041923), Catt was the doyenne of the US and the international woman suffrage movement. (Government, Politics & Diplomacy) any expression or determination of public opinion on some matter It is often forgotten that Bonaparte had to fight hard to preserve his power. Therefore, around 471 BC,[10] a law was passed to allow the plebeians to begin organizing by tribe. In both states, the voters said no to the proposal and no constitution was made. This is a land of women and old men left to till the fields and rear the children.Footnote https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Plebiscites. German Political Violence and the Border Plebiscite in Upper - JSTOR With the Revolution, France had entered into a period of written constitutions. It could either be applied as a derogatory, unflattering characterization of poor, uneducated countryfolks, merely uttering low-brow language with limited mental capacity, or, equally discriminating, to Slovene assimilationists in petite-bourgeoise milieus, hoping to climb the social and economic ladder of success in Carinthian society. How fair were the plebiscites that gave Savoy and Nice to France My Gift Wambaugh made clear that officially sanctioned referenda were rather the exception than the rule, as a method of compromise, to escape from a dilemma rather than as a deliberate choice (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 42). As demonstrated by the cases of the estate owners, who held land across the Alps in the SCS state, and the average Slovene-speaking peasants, who wanted to remain with Austria in order to be able to sell their produce at the nearest markets, language and national belonging only peripherally entered the plebiscite equation. 22 On her part, Wambaugh reiterated the strategy of combing the territory for male voters through conscription, not to obtain recruits, but to get rid of Peruvians by forcing them to serve or leave (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 359). In her approach to the complexities and conundrums of plebiscites during the interwar years, Wambaugh, though operating as an impartial agent for the LoN, was, nevertheless, decidedly influenced by Wilsonian politics and rhetoric specifically and an American interpretation of democracy generally. On 18 May, 1804, the Snat conservateur proclaimed that the government of the Republic had been handed over to an Emperor and that Napoleon Bonaparte had become the Empereur des Franais under the name of Napolon 1er. Yet the term self-determination is pivotal in all her writings and reoccurs in practically every analysis of plebiscites, be they official or irregular. Herself an ardent suffragist and member of the Womens International League for Peace and Freedom (henceforth WILPF), Wambaugh was painfully aware of this carrot-and-stick setting of the Yugoslav police, priests and crowds of rowdies who were rushed to the spot in special trains from Yugoslavia [] with revolvers and bludgeons,Footnote The patricians were excluded from the Council. (See for example my book Le Grand Consulat, Fayard, 1999.) After the partial usurpation of these borderlands and the Carinthian capital Klagenfurt/Celovec by forces of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (henceforth SCS) at the end of the First World War, a plebiscite, commissioned at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and by the Treaty of Saint Germain, was held on October 10, 1920, with 59.04% (22,025 votes; approximately half of which were speaking Slovene) of the Carinthian constituents opting for Austria (Gullberg Reference Gullberg2000; Weimann Reference Weimann, Konrad and Maderthaner2008; Rvsz Reference Rvsz2016). 3 UCLES 2020 0977/11/O/N/20 [Turn over 5 The Versailles settlement had a range of consequences. A plebiscite on 8 May 1870 to consolidate the Empire, four months before its downfall. Thereafter, she continued to stay there as an assistant for the next four years. As an innovating ideologist, Wambaugh, simultaneously, endowed woman suffrage with a more complex meaning, particularly in post-war and interwar times, and was able to manipulate socio-political discourses to a certain degree and on a transnational level. There were plenty of arguments against statehood for Hawaii, including Democrats' fears that the . The new constitution was ratified in a plebiscite. Thus, the "Plebeian Curiate Assembly" began to use tribes, rather than curiae, as its basis for organization. Additionally, she conducted research at the University of Oxford and todays London School of Economics and lectured briefly at Wellesley College. The point of using Lorem Ipsum is that it has a more-or-less normal distribution of letters, as opposed to using 'Content here, content here', making it look like readable English. However, the content of the text of An XII repeated many rules from the old Capetian monarchy (notably those referring to the imperial succession and the return of the Salic law which excluded women and their descendants perpetually from the succession). From the Cambridge English Corpus 101-137.) III, Art. What is a plebiscite? (see his portrait here). Hence, the female voting corpus in most cases of quantitative significance during the aftermaths of wars, due to the substantial decimation of the male population on battle fields attained a pertinent part in referenda-based rights to self-determination, and Wambaugh paid credit to this fact in her activism and writings. Everyone knows that the first article of the Snatus-consulte founding the Empire stipulated: The government of the Republic is handed over to an Emperor. Stay up to date with the biggest stories of the day with ANC's 'Dateline Philippines' (15 July 2023) | ABS-CBN News Channel, Philippines 16 Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Chile and Peru. 6 Wambaugh, Frontiers by Plebiscite, SWP1, box 2, folder 3, 16a. When Revolution came, the demands of legitimacy changedunder pressure from the idea of popular sovereignty, which itself disappeared behind the mysterious and still todayill-defined concept, ofthe Nation, the Holy Spirit of democracy, whereby votes counted were replaced by the idea of representation, which itself merged into what was called general will (volont gnrale), in other words, something higher and more immaterial than the multiplicity of votes. According to the intellectual historian Quentin Skinner, the role and profile to be fulfilled by such an innovating ideologist is to legitimate a new range of social actions which, in terms of the existing ways of applying the moral vocabulary prevailing in his society, are currently regarded as in some way untoward or illegitimate (Skinner Reference Skinner1974, 294). Whereas women were explicitly targeted in Carinthia, as mentioned before, Peruvian women in Tacna-Arica solely featured in sidelined and supportive roles to their male relatives. This article was supported by the EIRENE project (full title: Post-War Transitions in Gendered Perspective: The Case of the North-Eastern Adriatic Region), founded by the European Research Council under the Horizon 2020 financed Advanced Grant founding scheme [ERC Grant Agreement n. 742683]; https://project-eirene.eu. It showed the value of female voters, especially in their roles as procreators after a war that had decimated the male population on the frontlines for both sides. From 1906 to 1916, she worked for the Womens Educational and Industrial Union of Boston, founded in 1877 to promote womens professional, economic, and political chances in society, and she also actively engaged in the fight for womens votes. Quite symbolically, for example, her archive was only discovered by mere coincidence in the basement of the Harvard Law School Library in 1970. Initiative, referendum, and recall are three means by which the people may bring their will to bear directly on the legislative process and the machinery of government. Religion, nutrition, and commodities were one way to address women voters as mothers and carers of the family, human and cultural exchange another. The Plebeian Council elected two plebeian officers, the tribunes and the aediles, and thus Roman law classified these two officers as the elected representatives of the plebeians. Plutarch and Dionysus of Helicarnassus believed that these curiae were subdivisions of the three Romulean Tribes. "coreDisableEcommerceForElementPurchase": false, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Over the next 40 years, there were 48 more statehood bills presented. The Constitution of1793 was never applied because it was replaced by the Revolutionary government.) A plebiscite can be a government's way of finding out the opinion of the people before making a significant policy change. For him, the Slavophiles, adhering to Yugoslavia, were doomed by refusing this amelioration in the German family. Much more outspoken in her opinions and views in her unpublished manuscripts and drafts, she concluded that the Klagenfurt referendum, while being the worst in terms of treaty provisions, was the best concerning the organisation of machinery to safeguard the freedom of the voteFootnote The most well-known was the Treaty of Versailles, which dealt with Germany. Prehistoric man made his club and his physical strength the foundations of his power over others. Render date: 2023-07-17T20:20:10.776Z The Concilium Plebis (English: Plebeian Council., Plebeian Assembly, People's Assembly or Council of the Plebs) was the principal assembly of the common people of the ancient Roman Republic.It functioned as a legislative/judicial assembly, through which the plebeians (commoners) could pass legislation (called plebiscites), elect plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles, and try judicial cases. While Wambaugh regarded this as unproblematic in the case of the Klagenfurt Basin, which was a small, rural environment with adequate transport routes that could be easily policed (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 497498), she feared it would endanger the fairness of the plebiscite process in the mountainous, inaccessible landscape of Tacna-Arica. 3 Wambaugh, Memorandum, July 10, 1925, SWP1, box 1, folder 4, 2. Citing the Saar plebiscite of 1935 as a precedent, she proposed another period of international civil administration, modelled after the first that had lasted from 1920 to 1935, since in her opinion this governance was successful in everything except popularity with the inhabitants (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1945b, 4). Many cities and about one fourth of the states have incorporated it into their charters or constitutions. These are: Rogationes, Plebiscita and Leges. Both the referendum and the initiative were adopted in the United States under the leadership of groups hostile to machine politics or those convinced that government was generally insensitive to the popular will. When the Roman Republic was founded in 509 BC, the Roman people were divided into a total of thirty curiae. Rendering the female franchise as axiomatic (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 501), Wambaughs material and angle of insight valuably illuminated womens contribution to gender-related and multi-ethnic democratization dynamics during transitional periods in the aftermaths of wars, even though this perspective was not impartial but biased and with a particular cultural-colonial American component. The post-World War I Schleswig plebiscite and the stamps that honored (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1940, 110n13). For instance, her research for the 1919 Versailles Peace Conference was published in 1920 as A Monograph on Plebiscites, with a Collection of Official Documents, followed by many other titles on the topic, such as La Pratique des plbiscites internationaux (Reference Wambaugh1928), Plebiscites since the World War (Reference Wambaugh1933), and The Saar Plebiscite (Reference Florinsky1940). Active in suffragist circles before her appointments by the LoN, Wambaugh magnified this omission of female citizens from political contribution forcefully by forwarding a letter by Peruvian women of Tacna-Arica to the grande dame of transnational suffragist matters, Carrie Chapman Catt. The Plebeian Council was originally organized on the basis of the Curia but in 471 BC adopted an organizational system based on residential districts or tribes. The liberal laws concerning not only the press but also the right to hold non-political public meetings spurred the development of varying forms of opposition, notably Socialist, Republican and Anarchist, especially among the developing working-class population. "coreDisableSocialShare": false, 20 From the Peruvian Women, born in Tacna and Arica, to Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt, n.d., SWP1, box 1, folder 7, 12. However, she insisted on diminishing the German armoury to ensure world peace. 9 For this purpose, he was at the forefront of lobbying for the Knight Cross, first class, an Austrian order of merit, for Wambaugh, which she was actually awarded in 1935. Particularly the interpretation of the phrase [e]spirado este plazo / at the expiration of this termFootnote Lex Ogulnia (300 BC), which entitled plebeian citizens to one half of the priesthoods in the. "corePageComponentUseShareaholicInsteadOfAddThis": true, On 7 March 1936, Jews and Gypsies lost their right to vote. After the Lex Hortensia was introduced in 287 BC, Plebiscitas became law for the entire Roman population, including patricians. This page was last changed on 6 June 2023, at 18:01. And it was to the Emperor of the West that Napoleon turned when he chose his imperial solution. 4 Colonel Martin further recounted the apparent anomaly that German-speaking estate holders favored Yugoslavia, while much to his surprise the majority of the Slovenes thought it wiser that they should continue to be subjects of Austria (Martin Reference Martin, Bishop and Keogh1929, 348). [26] De Martino and Von Fritz believe that after the Lex Hortensia of 287 BC, patricians must not have been excluded from the Plebeian Council, as the laws created by the council were now applicable to the patricians. He had to fight the generals (whom he isolated one by one in embassies or commands in foreign parts), the ideologues (whom he confined to the Tribunat), the chambres (whose guns he spiked with the reforms of 1802), and the royalists too, who thought that the stabilisation of the country would open the door to a return of an appeasing monarchy. People may think that the free ideas sketched out here are simply intellectual and anachronistic. A reappraisal of the resource curse, Veto players and referendums around the world, Kulturkampf in Turkey: the constitutional referendum of 12 September 2010, Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification, Routledge Handbook of Comparative Political Institutions, Quin manda aqu? Laelius Felix and G.W. The principal characteristic of the mechanism of plebiscites is the vox populi, directly deciding the fate of a nation, which makes it very advantageous for individual sovereigns or nations as carriers of power to circumvent parliamentary institutions and channels. Whereas this nationalist stand by the episcopate was not shared by many priests and lower clergy, it had a decisive effect, most potently perhaps on female worshippers. At first, only 2 to 5 Tribunes were elected until the College of 10 was introduced in 457 BC. (This definition has lasted to today. 28 Promotional flyer, Sarah Wambaugh, Sarah Wambaugh Papers, 19021949; A-93 [henceforth SWP2], box 1, folder 5.
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